Active Remote Detection of Radioactivity Based on Electromagnetic Signatures

ABSTRACT

A system for the active remote detection of radioactivity from a target of interest includes a first laser source for generating an ionizing laser beam when remotely directed on a radioactive target of interest, a second laser source for generating a laser probe beam on the radioactive target of interest, and a spectrometer configured to measure the frequency modulation of the probe beam caused by the ionization from the radioactive target of interest.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This Application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application 61/935,903 filed on Feb. 5, 2014, incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention is directed to the detection of radioactive emission sources, and more particularly to determining a radioactive composition of the source by obtaining an electromagnetic signature associated with the specific type of radioactive emission source.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Existing methods for detection of radioactive materials have very limited range (less than a few meters). In addition existing methods are passive resulting in limited sensitivity. The Geiger-Muller tube is the most common type of radioactivity detector. A recently proposed active radioactivity detection concept is based on a high power THz pulse inducing avalanche breakdown and spark formation in the vicinity of the radioactive material, but has very limited stand-off detection range.

It would therefore be desirable to remotely detect radioactive materials with greater precision and specificity.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

According to the invention, a system for the active remote detection of radioactivity from a target of interest includes a first laser source for generating an ionizing laser beam when remotely directed on a radioactive target of interest, a second laser source for generating a laser probe beam on the radioactive target of interest, and a spectrometer configured to measure the frequency modulation of the probe beam caused by the ionization from the radioactive target of interest.

A laser-based radioactivity detection concept is a significant advance over existing methods and may have unique advantages depending on the stand-off distance and atmospheric conditions. The invention provides the active remote detection of radioactivity from radioactive sources based on their specific activity (radiation level), enabling stand-off detection at distances of greater than 100 m.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of the active remote radioactivity detection concept according to the invention;

FIG. 2 is a graph showing the radiation enhancement factor plotted as a function of distance from the radioactive source for 1 mg and 10 mg of ⁶⁰Co according to the invention;

FIG. 3A is a graph showing electron density as a function of time in the absence of any external radioactivity, where the laser parameters are λ=1 μm,I_(peak)=160 GW/cm²,τ_(laser)=1 nsec and FIG. 3B is a graph showing electron density versus time in the presence of radioactivity, with the same laser parameters as in FIG. 3A, according to the invention; and

FIG. 4 is a graph showing the fractional frequency shift ×ω/ω_(o)[%] versus time in the presence of radioactive material α_(rad)=10³ at the probe interaction distance of L=10 cm, with the same laser parameters as in FIG. 3A, according to the invention; and

FIG. 5 is a graph showing the fractional frequency shift Δω/ω_(o)[%] versus time and probe interaction distance L in the presence of radioactive material (α_(rad)=10³) according to the invention with the laser parameters the same as in FIG. 3 a.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

DEFINITION: The term “electromagnetic signature” as used herein means, for example, the identifiable correlation between the modulated laser probe beam and the specific activity (radiation level) attributable to a particular radioactive material, as discussed below.

Referring now to FIG. 1 that schematically illustrates the detection concept of the invention, detection system 100 includes an ionizing laser source 102 for generating a photo-detaching and ionizing beam 104 and a second laser source 106 for generating a laser probe beam 108 each from a selected distance onto a target of interest 110. When the target 110 is a radioactive material it emits gamma rays that ionize the surrounding air. The ionized (liberated) electrons rapidly attach to oxygen molecules forming O₂ ⁻ ions. The density of O₂ ⁻ around radioactive material can be several orders of magnitude greater than background levels. The elevated population of O₂ ⁻ extends several meters around the radioactive material. Electrons are easily photo-detached from O₂ ⁻ ions by laser radiation. The photo-detached electrons, in the presence of laser radiation, initiate avalanche ionization which results in a rapid increase in electron density. The rise in electron density induces a frequency modulation on a probe beam that correlates to and identifies the particular radioactive material based on its unique specific activity, thereby providing an electromagnetic signature.

The detector: A spectrometer, capable of detecting frequencies in the range of +/−10% of the frequency of the probe laser beam.

The selection of the distance of lasers 102 and 106 from the target 110 may be based on a number of factors such as prevailing atmospheric conditions.

Propagation of high power short pulse lasers in the atmosphere over extended distances has been analyzed and experimentally characterized, e.g. as described in P. Sprangle, J. R. Petiano, and B. Hafizi, Phys. Rev. E 66, 046418 (2002). Since the negative ions produced by the radioactive material have a low ionization potential (0.46 eV) they can be photo-detached by laser radiation (˜0.8−1 μm). The invention's approach is based on the probe beam 108 undergoing a frequency modulation while propagating in a temporally increasing electron density. The frequency modulation on the probe beam 108 becomes a spectral signature for the presence of radioactive material.

Radiation Enhancement Factor

A gamma ray propagating through matter can interact through several processes, including Rayleigh scattering, photoelectric and Compton effects, pair production, and so forth. In air, photoelectric absorption dominates at low photon energies (<25 keV) while at high energies (˜25 keV−3 MeV) Compton processes dominate. As the gamma ray propagates in air it loses energy in a cascading process and its mean free path L_(γ) decreases. A 1 MeV gamma ray has a mean free path in air of L_(γ)≈130 m.

The ionization rate due to background (ambient) radioactivity is (d N_(e)/dt)_(amb)=Q_(rad). At or near ground level, the background ionization rate is typically in the range Q_(rad)˜10−30 pairs/(cm³−sec). The gamma rays emitted by radioactive material ionize the surrounding air. In the presence of radioactive material the ionization rate (due to only radiation) can be greatly enhanced by a factor α_(rad)>>1 and (d N_(e)/dt)_(rad)α_(rad)Q_(rad). For a radioactive material of mass M _(rad) the number of disintegrations per second is v_(rad)=M_(rad)A_(rad), where A_(rad) is the specific activity associated with the material. For example, for ⁶⁰Co, A_(rad)=1.1×10³ Ci/g=4.1×10¹³ disintegration/(g−sec). In the case of ⁶⁰Co each disintegration results in two gammas of energy E_(γ,max)=1.173 MeV and E_(γ,max)=1.332 MeV which have a range in air of ˜130 m. In air the high energy gammas generate high energy electrons, via Compton and photoelectric processes, which undergo a cascading process to sufficiently low energy to attach to O₂ molecules forming O₂ ⁻ ions. In the cascading process the electrons lose an amount of energy ΔE≈34 eV per collision in air which results in both ionization and electronic excitation. A high energy electron with energy E_(e) therefore generates ˜E_(e)/ΔE low energy electrons. An electron having an energy of 1 MeV has a range in air of 4.6 m.

For a small spherical source of radioactivity the steady state density of emitted gamma rays is N_(γ=(v) _(rad)κ_(γ)/4πc R²)exp(−R/L_(γ)) where R is the distance from the radioactive material, L_(γ) is the effective range (mean free path) of the gamma rays in air which is a function of the gamma ray energy, E_(γ), and κ_(γ) is the number of gammas emitted per disintegration. The rate of change of electron density is a ∂N_(e)/∂t≈(α_(rad)+1) Q_(rad)+air chemistry and ionization terms, where

${\alpha_{rad} \approx {c{\langle\sigma_{\gamma - e}\rangle}N_{air}N_{\gamma}\frac{\langle E_{e}\rangle}{\Delta \; E}\frac{1}{Q_{rad}}} \approx {\frac{v_{rad}\kappa_{\gamma}}{4\pi {\langle L_{\gamma - e}\rangle}}\frac{\langle E_{e}\rangle}{\Delta \; E}\frac{1}{Q_{rad}}\frac{\exp \left( {{- R}/L_{\gamma}} \right)}{R^{2}}}},$

is the radiation enhancement factor,

E_(e)

is the average electron energy,

σ_(γ−e)

is the effective average cross section for electron generation by gammas, i.e., Compton absorption and photoelectric processes,

L_(γ−e)

=(

σ_(γ−e)

N_(air))⁻¹ is the average mean free path for electron generation by gammas and N_(air)=2.7×10¹⁹ cm⁻³ is the air density at STP. In the absence of radioactive material α_(rad)=0. In FIG. 2 the radiation enhancement factor α_(rad) is plotted as a function of the distance from the radioactive source R. This plot is for samples containing 1 mg and 10 mg of ⁶⁰Co and indicates that the enhanced level is significant for ranges extending up to several meters. As an example, for

E_(e)

=0.5 MeV, M_(rad)=10 mg, v_(rad)=M_(rad)A_(rad)=8.2×10¹¹ disintegrations/sec, κ_(γ)=2, R=50 cm,

L_(γ⊕e.)

=100 m and Q_(rad)=20 disintegrations/(cm³−sec) the radiation enhancement factor is α_(rad)≈2×10⁶ which is far above the background level.

Electron and Ion Density Evolution (Air Chemistry)

To determine the frequency modulation on a probe pulse it is necessary to follow the time evolution of the electron and negative ion density, which are sensitive functions of air chemistry processes (see, e.g., M. Capitelli, C. M. Ferreira, B. F. Gordiets and A. I. Osipov, Plasma Kinetics in Atmospheric Gases (Springer-Verlag, NY 2010)) and electron heating by the laser radiation. The source terms for the electrons include radioactivity, detachment, photo-detachment and photo-ionization, while the loss terms include various attachment and recombination processes including aerosols. The expressions for the rate of change of electron density N_(E) and negative ion density N_(see, e.g., R. F. Fernsler, A. W. Ali, J. R. Greig and I. M. Vitkovitsky, “The NRL CHMAIR Code: A Disturbed Sea Level Air Chemistry Code,” NRL Memorandum Report 4110 (1979); A. W. Ali, “Electron Energy Loss Rates in Air,” NRL Memorandum Report 5400 (1984); L.G. Christophorou, Atomic and Molecular Radiation Physics (Wiley-Interscience, London, UK, 1971), p. 530; P. Sprangle, J. Periano, B. Hafizi, D. Gordon and M. Scully, Appl. Phys. Lett. 98, 211102 (2011)) are ∂N_(i)/∂t=(1+α_(rad))Q_(rad)÷S_(e)−L₃, ∂N_−L_, where S_(e) represents the various electron source terms, L_(e) is the electron loss terms, S_ represents the ion source, L_ is the ion loss terms (see, e.g., P. Sprangle, B. Hafizi, H. Milchberg, G. Nusinovich and A. Zigler, Physics of Plasmas (to be published, 2013)).

The effect of radioactivity is represented by the first term on the right hand side of the electron rate equation. The steady state electron and negative ion densities are given by N_(e)≈(β_(n)N_(n)/η)√{square root over ((1+α_(rad))Q_(rad)/β₊)}+(1+α_(rad))Q_(rad)η≈(β_(n)N_(n)/η)√{square root over ((1+α_(rad))Q_(rad)/β₊)}, and N_≈√{square root over ((1+α_(rad))Q_(rad)/β₊)}, where N_(n) is the neutral air density (N_(n)˜N_(air) for low levels of ionization), β₊≈2×10⁻⁶ cm³/sec is the recombination rate, η≈10⁸ sec⁻¹ is the attachment rate and β_(n)≈(5−10)×10⁻¹⁹ cm³/sec is the negative ion detachment rate due to collisions with neutrals. In the absence of radioactive material (α_(rad)=0) the ambient (background) electron and negative ion density are N_(e)10⁻³ cm⁻³ and N_≈3×10³ cm⁻³, where Q,_(rad)=20cm⁻³ sec⁻¹. At a distance of 4 m from a radioactive source containing 10 mg of ⁶⁰Co, the radioactive enhancement factor is α_(rad)=2.2×10⁴ and the elevated electron and negative ion densities are N_(e)0.2 cm⁻³ and N_≈4.7×10⁵ cm⁻³.

The ionization potential of O₂ ⁻ is 0.46 eV and therefore can undergo single-photon photo-detachment with laser radiation of wavelength λ=1 μm (1.24 eV) or λ=0.8 μm (1.55 eV). The photo-detachment rate is v_(opt)=σ_(opt)cN_(ph)=σ_(opt)I_(o)/ω, where c N _(ph)=I_(o)/ω is the incident photon flux, I₀ is the laser intensity and σ_(opt) is the photo-detachment cross section. The experimental value for the single-photon ionization cross section of O₂ ⁻ is σ_(opt)(λ=1 μm)≈4.5×10⁻¹⁹ cm² and σ_(opt)(λ=0.8 μm)≈7.5×10⁻¹⁹ cm². The single-photon ionization rate for O₂ ⁻ is therefore,

${v_{opt}\left\lbrack \sec^{- 1} \right\rbrack} = {{I_{o}\left\lbrack {W/{cm}^{2}} \right\rbrack}\left\{ {\begin{matrix} {2.3,} & {\lambda = {1\mspace{11mu} {µm}}} \\ {3,} & {\lambda = {0.8\mspace{11mu} {µm}}} \end{matrix},} \right.}$

The various source and loss terms, in particular the collisional ionization rate, are functions of the electron temperature. The electron temperature is determined by the collisional electron heating (Ohmic heating) by the laser radiation and the cooling effect resulting from excitation of vibrational modes of the air molecules. The equation for the electron temperature T_(e) (see, e.g., Ya. B. Zel'dovich and Yu. P. Raizer, Physics of Shock Waves and High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena (Dover, Mineola, N.Y., 2002)), (3/2)∂(N_(e)T_(e))/∂t=

J·E

+(3/2)(N_(e)/τ_(cool))(T_(e)-T_(eo))−U_(lon)∂N_(e)/∂t, where T_(e) is the electron temperature,

J·E

is the Ohmic heating rate, τ_(cool) is the electron cooling time due to inelastic collisions, T_(eo)=0.025 eV is the ambient electron temperature and U_(ion) is the effective ionization potential of air (˜10 eV).

Frequency Modulation on a Probe Beam

A probe beam propagating through a region of space in which the electron density is changing with time will undergo a frequency change. The electron density in the vicinity of the radioactive source and under the influence of the laser radiation varies in space and in time. Consequently the frequency/wavenumber of an electromagnetic probe beam propagating in such a plasma will vary in space and in time. The one-dimensional wave equation (∂²/∂z²−c⁻²∂²/∂t²)A(z,t)=c⁻²ω_(p) ²(z,t)A(z,t) can be used to determine the frequency/wavenumber shift. Here, ω_(p)(z,t)=(4πq²N_(e)(z,t)/m)^(1/2) is the plasma frequency and A(z,t) is the vector potential associated with the probe. The vector potential can be expressed in terms of slowly-varying amplitude and phase, in the form A(z,t)=(1/2)B(z,t)exp[i(k_(o)z−ω_(o)t)+θ(z,t)]+c.c., where ω_(o) is the incident probe frequency and θ(z,t) is the phase. The frequency modulation on the probe beam is given by ω_(probe)(z,t)=ω_(o)+Δω(z,t), where Δω(z,t)=ω_(po) ²/(2ω_(o))exp(v_(ion)t)(1−exp(−v_(ion)z/c)) and v_(ion) is the ionization frequency. The maximum fractional frequency shift occurs for z>c/v_(ion)˜1 cm and is Δω_(max)/ω_(o)=(ω_(po) ²/2ω₀ ²)exp(v_(ion)t). The effective ionization rate can vary widely but is typically v_(ion)˜10¹¹sec⁻¹.

Radioactivity Detection Example

The radioactive source is assumed strong enough to produce a radiation enhancement factor of α_(rad)=10³. The radiation enhancement factor value is consistent with low quantities of radioactive material as shown in FIG. 2. We take the ionizing laser to have a peak intensity of I_(peak)=160 GW/cm² and pulse duration of τ_(laser)=1 nsec. In these examples, the probe beam is taken to be a millimeter wave source of frequency f_(probe)=94 GHz, (λ_(probe)=3.2 mm). The critical electron density, associated with the probe frequency, ω_(probe)=ω_(p,cnt)=5.64×10⁴n _(e,cnt) ^(1/2)[cm⁻³], is n_(e,crit)=10¹⁴ cm⁻³. The background radiation is taken to be Q_(rad)=30 disintegrations/(cm³−sec) In the absence of radioactivity, FIG. 3A, the ionizing laser intensity is just below the breakdown level, i.e., the electron density is low, and there is virtually no frequency modulation on the probe beam. FIG. 3B shows the electron density as a function of time in the presence of radioactive material (α_(rad)=10³). The electron density at the end of the ionizing laser pulse approaches the value of n_(e)=10¹³ cm⁻³ which is an order of magnitude less than the critical electron density.

The frequency modulation on the probe millimeter wave beam is shown in FIG. 4. In the absence of radioactive material there is no frequency modulation on the probe. However, for α_(rad)=10³ the fractional frequency modulation is significant and equal to ˜5%, which is readily detectable. The fractional frequency shift on the probe as a function of both axial interaction distance L and time is shown in FIG. 5.

While the present invention has been described with respect to exemplary embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that variations and modifications can be effected within the scope and spirit of the invention. For example, the probe laser can comprise a probe millimeter wave source or a microwave source. Also, the presence of an ionizing radioactive material may further be detected by the generation of a spark/air breakdown upon ionization when exposed to the ionizing laser beam. In addition, the invention may be applied to/include spectroscopic signatures from other species present in the atmosphere such as the 337 nm line of nitrogen molecules. Alternatives electromagnetic signatures include i) backscattering and frequency upshifting of radiation from energetic electrons generated by the gamma rays, ii) spectroscopic signature from other molecular constituents in the atmosphere that are excited by the gamma rays and iii) photo-detachment of electrons from atomic oxygen, O⁻. 

1. A method for the active remote detection of radioactivity from a target of interest, comprising: providing an ionizing laser source for generating an ionizing laser beam; providing a second laser for generating a laser probe beam; directing the ionizing laser beam and the laser probe beam from a selected distance onto the target of interest; and measuring a frequency modulation on the laser probe beam to generate an electromagnetic signature and identify the target of interest as a specific type of radioactive material.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the ionizing laser source has a peak intensity of I_(peak)=160 GW/cm² and pulse duration of τ_(laser)=1 nsec.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the laser probe beam has a frequency in the range of 90 GHz to 110 GHz.
 4. A system for the active remote detection of radioactivity from a target of interest, comprising: a first laser source for generating an ionizing laser beam when remotely directed on a radioactive target of interest; a second laser source for generating a laser probe beam on the radioactive target of interest; and a spectrometer configured to measure the frequency modulation of the probe beam caused by the ionization from the radioactive target of interest.
 5. The system of claim 4, wherein a radioactive composition of the radioactive target of interest is determined measuring a frequency modulation on the laser probe beam to generate an electromagnetic signature and identify the target of interest as a specific type of radioactive material.
 6. The system of claim 4, wherein the first laser source has a peak intensity of I_(peak)=160 GW/cm² and pulse duration of τ_(laser)=1 nsec.
 7. The system of claim 4, wherein the laser probe beam has a frequency in the range of 90 GHz to 110 GHz.
 8. A system for the active remote detection of radioactivity from a source, comprising: a first laser source for producing an ionizing beam and having a peak intensity and a pulse duration sufficient for producing an ionization from a radioactive target of interest when the ionizing beam is directed on the radioactive target of interest from a selected distance; a second laser source for generating a laser probe beam modulated by the ionization from the radioactive target of interest; and a spectrometer configured to measure the frequency modulation of the probe beam caused by the ionization from the radioactive target of interest.
 9. The system of claim 8, wherein a radioactive composition of the radioactive target of interest is determined measuring a frequency modulation on the second laser probe beam to generate an electromagnetic signature and identify the target of interest as a specific type of radioactive material.
 10. The system of claim 9, wherein the first laser source has a peak intensity of I_(peak)=160 GW/cm and pulse duration of τ_(laser)=1 nsec.
 11. The system of claim 9, wherein the laser probe beam has a frequency in the range of 90 GHz to 110 GHz. 